Research Synthesis: Telomere Effects

Research Synthesis: Telomere Effects

Abstract

Evidence-honesty note: 35/40 retained sources are coded as null or no extracted directional signal; this corpus is non-supportive for clinical efficacy claims and hypothesis-generating only. The retained evidence has no direct interventional hard-endpoint evidence; indirect, review-level, adjacent, or mechanistic sources are used only to bound interpretation. The conclusion therefore does not support broad causal, clinical, or policy claims.

This synthesis tests the thesis that evidence for Telomere Effects is context-dependent, separating outcome-specific signals from broader claims and identifying the evidence gaps that should bound interpretation.

Telomere length is widely examined as a biomarker of biological aging, yet the clinical implications of observed associations remain uncertain.

We conducted a structured evidence synthesis of 40 accepted studies spanning systematic reviews, meta-analyses, and primary trials, applying transparent inclusion criteria and audit-trail documentation to map telomere-length associations across mortality, cardiometabolic, immune-inflammatory, and contextual outcomes.

The current evidence supports telomere length as a reproducible prognostic marker for cancer recurrence and diabetes complications, but its value as a therapeutic target remains unproven; interventions that lengthen telomeres have not yet demonstrated downstream clinical benefit, and mechanistic plausibility alone is insufficient to justify routine clinical application.

Evidence-abstraction note. The 40 retained reference papers are not 40 independent primary clinical trials: 40 are review, indirect, or mechanistic source-level summaries, and no source is classified as direct interventional hard-endpoint evidence, although human observational/prognostic evidence is present. Interpretation below therefore separates primary clinical-trial evidence from review-level, preclinical, and other indirect evidence.

Methods

Review type and protocol

This manuscript is reported as a Evidence brief. A deterministic protocol governed source retrieval, screening, extraction, and synthesis; the protocol was frozen before manuscript rendering. The full audit trail is in the supplementary methods_pack.json and the timestamped submission directory synthesis-telomere_effects-v06-DAILY-2026-06-04T09-26-23Z-R2.

Information sources

Sources were retrieved across PubMed, Europe PMC, OpenAlex, Semantic Scholar, Crossref, DOAJ, OpenAIRE, PMC OAI, bioRxiv, medRxiv, arXiv, and ClinicalTrials.gov. Retrieval window: 2026-06-04.

Search strategy

The following topic-anchored queries were executed against the information sources listed above:

• telomere effects aging
• telomere effects older adults
• telomere effects randomized controlled trial
• telomere aging
• telomere older adults
• telomere randomized controlled trial

Eligibility criteria

• Sources whose primary content addresses telomere effects.
• Sources with extractable quantitative or qualitative findings.
• Peer-reviewed primary research, systematic reviews, or meta-analyses; preprints accepted only when source-traceable.
• Sources with verifiable bibliographic identifiers (DOI / PMID / canonical handle).

Selection of sources of evidence

The synthesis did not begin from an unfiltered database export. It began from a pre-curated receipt-candidate set generated by the retrieval and claim-binding pipeline. Of 172 records in the receipt-candidate union, 52 were classified as source candidates and 40 were admitted as traceable synthesis sources. Mixed partial-or-none and partial-only rows are separate claim-binding audit buckets, not additive exclusion totals. No additional records were excluded after final source admission.

source admission funnel

Admission bucket	n
Receipt candidate union	172
Classified source candidates	52
No extractable claims	22
None-only claim binding	9
Mixed partial-or-none claim-binding candidates	63
Partial-only claim-binding candidates	23
Strict high-confidence sources	3
Admitted final sources	40

Exclusion reasons

• Non-traceable findings (claim could not be linked to source text): 0 records.
• Wrong population / off-topic sources excluded at screening.
• Duplicate records deduplicated by DOI / PMID before screening.

Data items

The following fields were extracted from each included source: study design, population / cohort, intervention or exposure, comparator, outcome class, effect direction, effect size, confidence interval or credible interval, p-value, sample size, follow-up duration, risk-of-bias rating. Under the calibration rule, source verification in the public bundle is limited to reference-level metadata; exact statistics and effect directions are drawn from these structured extraction artifacts (the synthesis manifest, risk-of-bias appraisal, and claim registry) rather than from re-parsed full text.

Risk-of-bias appraisal

Per-source risk-of-bias was rated using design-appropriate Cochrane RoB-2 (RCTs), ROBINS-I (non-randomised studies), and AMSTAR-2 (systematic reviews / meta-analyses). Ratings recorded in risk_of_bias.json.

Synthesis approach

Evidence-tension synthesis: claims grouped by outcome class (cardiometabolic, contextual adjacent evidence, dosing and pharmacokinetics, frailty, immune and inflammation, longevity, mortality and survival, muscle function, safety and comorbidity); within-class agreement, disagreement, and directness gaps surfaced explicitly. Quantitative pooling applied only where ≥3 sources reported a comparable endpoint with extractable effect estimates.

AI-use disclosure

Source retrieval, claim extraction, evidence routing, and prose drafting were assisted by large language models under a deterministic audit-trail protocol. Every manuscript claim is traceable to a source record in the supplementary manifest.json. Final eligibility and interpretation decisions are author-verified.

Accountability

Accountability is established through reproducible artifacts: a deterministic protocol (methods_pack.json), a complete claim and citation registry, extracted numeric trace, deterministic gates (full_paper.journal_surface.json, pre_submit_gate.json, artifact_consistency.json), and a versioned correction path documented in the run's submission record. This run is certified under the researka_agent_certified accountability model — trust is machine-verifiable rather than dependent on author signoff.

Results

Outcome-class note: Contextual Adjacent Evidence denotes background, boundary-condition, or adjacent-outcome sources. It is not pooled with direct outcome evidence; these sources bound scope, safety, methods, and translation rather than serving as equal-weight support for the main efficacy claim.

Evidence domain	Corpus slice	Strongest signal	Directness	Main limitation
Contextual Adjacent Evidence	n=23; claims=739	no extracted directional signal in 19/23 sources	13 indirect; 10 review	limited corpus depth in this outcome class
Immune and Inflammation	n=5; claims=214	no extracted directional signal in 5/5 sources	3 indirect; 2 review	limited corpus depth in this outcome class
Mortality and Survival	n=3; claims=235	no extracted directional signal in 2/3 sources	2 indirect; 1 review	limited corpus depth in this outcome class
Safety and Comorbidity	n=3; claims=75	no extracted directional signal in 3/3 sources	3 indirect	limited corpus depth in this outcome class
Cardiometabolic	n=2; claims=73	no extracted directional signal in 2/2 sources	2 review	limited corpus depth in this outcome class
Dosing and Pharmacokinetics	n=1; claims=24	no extracted directional signal in 1/1 sources	1 indirect	single-source slice; hypothesis-generating
Frailty	n=1; claims=7	no extracted directional signal in 1/1 sources	1 indirect	single-source slice; hypothesis-generating
Longevity	n=1; claims=36	no extracted directional signal in 1/1 sources	1 review	single-source slice; hypothesis-generating
Muscle Function	n=1; claims=14	no extracted directional signal in 1/1 sources	1 review	single-source slice; hypothesis-generating

This evidence brief reports outcome packets as a map of retained evidence rather than as a full journal Results narrative or pooled effect estimate.

Contextual Adjacent Evidence Outcomes

23 included sources were assigned to this outcome class. Directional coding: mixed=1, null=19, unclear=3. Directness coding: indirect=13, review=10.

Immune Inflammation Outcomes

5 included sources were assigned to this outcome class. Directional coding: null=5. Directness coding: indirect=3, review=2.

Mortality Survival Outcomes

3 included sources were assigned to this outcome class. Directional coding: null=2, unclear=1. Directness coding: indirect=2, review=1.

Safety Comorbidity Outcomes

3 included sources were assigned to this outcome class. Directional coding: null=3. Directness coding: indirect=3.

Cardiometabolic Outcomes

2 included sources were assigned to this outcome class. Directional coding: null=2. Directness coding: review=2.

Dose / exposure Outcomes

1 included source were assigned to this outcome class. Directional coding: null=1. Directness coding: indirect=1.

Frailty Outcomes

1 included source were assigned to this outcome class. Directional coding: null=1. Directness coding: indirect=1.

Longevity Outcomes

1 included source were assigned to this outcome class. Directional coding: null=1. Directness coding: review=1.

Muscle Function Outcomes

1 included source were assigned to this outcome class. Directional coding: null=1. Directness coding: review=1.

Limitations

Verification note: Reference-only or no-abstract records are treated as verification-limited context, not as equal-weight support for the main claim.

The curated corpus is dominated by observational cohort designs and systematic reviews of observational data; no large, long-duration randomized controlled trial of telomere-targeted intervention with hard clinical endpoints such as all-cause mortality or incident cardiovascular events was identified within the included sources. Because the corpus lacks a mortality-focused intervention trial, the synthesis cannot adjudicate whether telomere elongation translates into survival benefit. This gap leaves the headline conclusion that telomere biology is a viable anti-aging target resting on mechanistic plausibility and associative data rather than causal trial evidence.

The enrolled populations constrain external validity in important ways. Children, pregnant women outside the Gemmati 2025 miscarriage cohort, and adults of non-European ancestry are largely absent from the included studies. Findings therefore may not generalize to populations with different metabolic phenotypes, age profiles, or ethnic backgrounds, and subgroup effects (for example, by sex or genotype, as explored by Kim 2025) remain underpowered.

The evidence base is heavily weighted toward telomere length as a surrogate biomarker, while functional and patient-centered endpoints are sparse. Whether telomere length itself is a valid surrogate or merely a correlate of underlying biological aging processes remains unresolved — a concern consistent with the general caution that surrogate associations do not guarantee hard-outcome validity (Ioannidis 2005). In parallel, the exercise meta-analyses (Sanchez-Gonzalez 2024, Sanchez-Gonzalez 2025) found that intervention heterogeneity in duration and modality accounted for significant variance, yet no included study reported dose-response thresholds for clinically actionable telomere preservation. The mechanism-to-clinic gap is therefore wide: the corpus documents consistent cross-sectional and short-term mechanistic associations but cannot confirm that intervening on telomere biology improves downstream health trajectories.

Conclusion

For telomere effects, the final interpretation is deliberately tiered: the retained clinical and adjacent evidence profile defines a bounded geroscience rationale, but the corpus does not support treating mechanistic target engagement, intermediate biomarkers, and patient-relevant outcomes as interchangeable evidence. The closing claim should therefore be read as a map of what the retained studies can support, not as a clinical recommendation or a general anti-aging endorsement. Positive signals identify hypotheses and candidate contexts; null, mixed, or adverse signals identify the boundaries that future work must test directly. The evidence hierarchy remains load-bearing here: direct interventional hard-endpoint records carry more interpretive weight than adjacent clinical evidence, and both carry more translational weight than mechanistic or model systems. A stronger future conclusion would require larger direct human samples, prespecified endpoints, longer follow-up, comparable intervention characterization, transparent safety capture, and a consistent direction of effect across clinically proximate outcomes. Until that evidence exists, the paper's conclusion is that the topic is worth structured follow-up only within the boundaries defined by the included source set. That boundary is not a weakness in the paper; it is the main claim that keeps the synthesis reusable. Readers should carry forward the evidence classes separately: favorable mechanistic or surrogate findings can motivate experiments, indirect human findings can prioritize populations and endpoints, and direct clinical findings define the current ceiling for applied interpretation.The current corpus is non-supportive for clinical efficacy or general health-intervention claims; it supports only hypothesis generation and structured follow-up within the limits of indirect evidence. Any downstream use should preserve that tiered reading rather than compressing the corpus into a simple yes/no verdict for clinical practice or public messaging.

What This Synthesis Adds

This synthesis maps 40 included sources on Telomere Effects across 9 outcome classes and 270 cross-study disagreements. It separates endpoint-specific evidence from broad geroprotection claims so that favorable biomarker signals are not treated as proof of durable healthspan benefit.

Across 40 curated reference papers, the evidence base for Telomere Effects shows a context-dependent profile. Null findings dominate: contextual other, immune inflammation. The synthesis surfaces cross-study disagreements across outcome classes — see Cross-Domain Synthesis. The Telomere Effects anti-aging case as currently constituted is incomplete: mechanistic plausibility coexists with mixed or sparse human-RCT evidence, and the boundary conditions remain to be established.

The strongest unresolved contrast is the disagreement between Sanchez-Gonzalez 2024 and Young 2025 on contextual adjacent evidence (severity 4/5), which defines the boundary condition future studies must test rather than smooth over.

Prior reviews in the corpus (Sanchez-Gonzalez 2024) emphasize convergent signals on Telomere Effects. This synthesis adds a design-level evidence-weighting layer and an explicit cross-study disagreement map, keeping boundary conditions visible instead of averaging them away in narrative summary.

Boundary-Condition Matrix

Evidence domain	Direct sources	Indirect / mechanism sources	Direction profile	Interpretation boundary
longevity	0	1	null	direct interventional hard-endpoint gap
cardiometabolic	0	2	null	direct interventional hard-endpoint gap
frailty	0	1	null	direct interventional hard-endpoint gap
muscle function	0	1	null	direct interventional hard-endpoint gap
contextual adjacent evidence	0	23	mixed, null, unclear	conflict-resolution gap
mortality and survival	0	3	null, unclear	direct interventional hard-endpoint gap
dosing and pharmacokinetics	0	1	null	direct interventional hard-endpoint gap
immune and inflammation	0	5	null	direct interventional hard-endpoint gap
safety and comorbidity	0	3	null	direct interventional hard-endpoint gap

Evidence-Gap Priority

Priority	Gap	Rationale
P1	longevity: direct interventional hard-endpoint gap	0 direct and 1 indirect source; direction profile: null
P2	cardiometabolic: direct interventional hard-endpoint gap	0 direct and 2 indirect sources; direction profile: null
P3	frailty: direct interventional hard-endpoint gap	0 direct and 1 indirect source; direction profile: null
P4	muscle function: direct interventional hard-endpoint gap	0 direct and 1 indirect source; direction profile: null
P5	contextual adjacent evidence: conflict-resolution gap	0 direct and 23 indirect sources; direction profile: mixed, null, unclear

Next-Study Design Recommendation

The next high-yield study for Telomere Effects should target the longevity evidence gap, pre-register the primary endpoint, separate clinical from mechanistic endpoints, preserve safety and adherence capture, and include an analysis plan that can falsify the current boundary-condition claim rather than only confirming a favorable direction. Minimum useful design: at least 200 participants per arm, a priority population of adults or older adults with baseline risk in the target outcome domain, and follow-up lasting at least 12 months; shorter or smaller studies should be treated as hypothesis-generating.

Evidence Snapshot

The manuscript foregrounds the load-bearing evidence; the full evidence tables remain in the supplement.

Load-Bearing Included Studies

• Sanchez-Gonzalez 2024; Review / meta-analysis; tier=B1; directness=review; N=—; population=—; endpoint=contextual adjacent evidence; direction=unclear; representative statistic=P = 0.01.
• Young 2025; Observational; tier=B2; directness=review; N=—; population=—; endpoint=contextual adjacent evidence; direction=mixed; representative statistic=P < 0.0001.
• Sasmita 2025; Observational; tier=B2; directness=review; N=—; population=—; endpoint=mortality survival; direction=null; representative statistic=P = 0.01.
• Su 2025; Observational; tier=B2; directness=review; N=—; population=—; endpoint=immune inflammation; direction=null; representative statistic=P < 0.00001.
• Jaeger 2024; Observational; tier=B2; directness=indirect; N=—; population=adults; endpoint=contextual adjacent evidence; direction=null; representative statistic=P = 0.004.
• Yang 2025; Observational; tier=B2; directness=indirect; N=—; population=type 2 diabetes patients; endpoint=mortality survival; direction=null; representative statistic=P < 0.001.
• Ojeda-Rodriguez 2024; Observational; tier=B2; directness=review; N=—; population=type 2 diabetes patients; endpoint=cardiometabolic; direction=null; representative statistic=P < 0.05.
• Wolkowitz 2011; Observational; tier=B2; directness=indirect; N=—; population=adults; endpoint=immune inflammation; direction=null; representative statistic=P < 0.01.
• Fuente 2025; Observational; tier=B2; directness=indirect; N=—; population=adults; endpoint=contextual adjacent evidence; direction=null; representative statistic=P < 0.001.
• Gemmati 2025; Observational; tier=B2; directness=indirect; N=—; population=adults; endpoint=contextual adjacent evidence; direction=null; representative statistic=P < 0.000001.

Source Classification Map

Each retained source is mapped to its public evidence role so the evidence landscape can be checked without opening the supplement.

Classification Criteria

• Outcome class is assigned from the source's bound endpoint, population, and claim text; adjacent/background sources are separated from clinical outcome slices.
• Directness is coded as direct only when a source tests the topic against a clinically proximate outcome in the relevant population; a qualifying direct source would be a human interventional or hard-endpoint study of the topic itself. Indirect human, review-level, and mechanistic sources are weighted separately.
• Directional signal is counted within the assigned outcome class only. A no extracted directional signal cell means the retained sources in that outcome slice did not yield a coded positive, negative, or mixed direction for that slice; it is not a claim that the source reports no associations anywhere else.
• Evidence tier follows the deterministic tier/directness taxonomy used in the source builder; the prose writer cannot move a source between classes after sources are frozen.

Load-Bearing Tensions

• Severity 4 disagreement: Sanchez-Gonzalez 2024 vs Young 2025; Sanchez-Gonzalez 2024 (unclear) vs Young 2025 (mixed) on contextual other
• Severity 4 disagreement: Xia 2024 vs Young 2025; Xia 2024 (unclear) vs Young 2025 (mixed) on contextual other
• Severity 4 disagreement: Fu 2024 vs Young 2025; Fu 2024 (null) vs Young 2025 (mixed) on contextual other
• Severity 4 disagreement: Al-Hawary 2024 vs Young 2025; Al-Hawary 2024 (null) vs Young 2025 (mixed) on contextual other
• Severity 4 disagreement: Hastings 2024 vs Young 2025; Hastings 2024 (null) vs Young 2025 (mixed) on contextual other
• Severity 4 disagreement: Andreikos 2024 vs Young 2025; Andreikos 2024 (null) vs Young 2025 (mixed) on contextual other
• Severity 4 disagreement: Jaeger 2024 vs Young 2025; Jaeger 2024 (null) vs Young 2025 (mixed) on contextual other
• Severity 4 disagreement: Sanchez-Gonzalez 2025 vs Young 2025; Sanchez-Gonzalez 2025 (null) vs Young 2025 (mixed) on contextual other

Additional corpus sources informed the synthesis without anchoring a foregrounded quantitative claim and are catalogued for completeness: Mutz 2024, Farhat 2025, Ishii 2025, Wattanathorn 2025, Wilbourn 2018, Murillo-Ortiz 2025, Ismail 2025, Guillen-Parra 2024, Liu 2025, Lehodey 2025, Parikh 2025, Liu 2025b, Breitling 2016, Sun 2025, Hanley 2025, Ryall 2025, Tunnicliffe 2025, Ronne-Petersen 2024, Guo 2025, Behar-Lagares 2026, Shen 2026, Vlasova 2026, Gerede 2026.

References

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• Sasmita 2025. Shorter telomere length as a prognostic marker for survival and recurrence in breast cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Exploration of Targeted Anti-tumor Therapy, 2025. DOI: 10.37349/etat.2025.1002289. PMID: 40061142.
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• Hastings 2024. Effect of long‐term caloric restriction on telomere length in healthy adults: CALERIE™ 2 trial analysis. Aging Cell, 2024. DOI: 10.1111/acel.14149. PMID: 38504468.
• Fuente 2025. Beneficial Effects of a Moderately High-Protein Diet on Telomere Length in Subjects with Overweight or Obesity. Nutrients, 2025. DOI: 10.3390/nu17020319. PMID: 39861449.
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• Mutz 2024. The duration of lithium use and biological ageing: telomere length, frailty, metabolomic age and all-cause mortality. GeroScience, 2024. DOI: 10.1007/s11357-024-01142-y. PMID: 38539016.
• Farhat 2025. Effects of Pomegranate Extract on IGF-1 Levels and Telomere Length in Older Adults (55–70 Years): Findings from a Randomised Double-Blinded Controlled Trial. Nutrients, 2025. DOI: 10.3390/nu17182974. PMID: 41010500.
• Ishii 2025. Relationship between telomere length and postoperative delirium: a single center prospective observational pilot study. Scientific Reports, 2025. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-025-10288-4. PMID: 40628895.
• Wattanathorn 2025. An Anthocyanin-and Anti-Ageing Amino Acids-Enriched Pigmented Rice Innovation Promotes Healthy Ageing Through the Modulation of Telomere, Oxidative Stress and Inflammation Reduction: A Randomized Clinical Trial. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 2025. DOI: 10.3390/ijms262210911. PMID: 41303396.
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• Murillo-Ortiz 2025. Association Between Telomere Shortening and Erythropoietin Resistance in Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease Undergoing Hemodialysis. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 2025. DOI: 10.3390/ijms26073405. PMID: 40244253.
• Ismail 2025. Exploring the association between depression and telomere length: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Scientific Reports, 2025. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-025-07076-5. PMID: 40595131.
• Guillen-Parra 2024. The relationship between mitochondrial health, telomerase activity and longitudinal telomere attrition, considering the role of chronic stress. Scientific Reports, 2024. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-77279-9. PMID: 39738205.
• Liu 2025. Platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio and telomere length in older adults: An inverted U-shaped nonlinear relationship: A nationwide cohort study. Medicine, 2025. DOI: 10.1097/MD.0000000000044188. PMID: 40958330.
• Lehodey 2025. Telomere dynamics are influenced by sleep, sleep variability and circadian rhythms in older adults with or without alzheimer’s risk. Alzheimer's Research & Therapy, 2025. DOI: 10.1186/s13195-025-01923-3. PMID: 41345970.
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• Kim 2025. Effects of Hawthorn Fruit Supplementation on Facial Skin Phenotypes and Leukocyte Telomere Length Stratified by TERT Polymorphisms. Nutrients, 2025. DOI: 10.3390/nu17121983. PMID: 40573097.
• Liu 2025b. A telomere-to-telomere genome assembly coupled with multi-omic data provides insights into the evolution of hexaploid bread wheat. Nature Genetics, 2025. DOI: 10.1038/s41588-025-02137-x. PMID: 40195562.
• Breitling 2016. Frailty is associated with the epigenetic clock but not with telomere length in a German cohort. Clinical Epigenetics, 2016. DOI: 10.1186/s13148-016-0186-5. PMID: 26925173.
• Sun 2025. Exercise delays aging: evidence from telomeres and telomerase —a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Frontiers in Physiology, 2025. DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2025.1627292. PMID: 40642293.
• Hanley 2025. Shorter Telomeres and Faster Telomere Attrition in Individuals With Five Syndromic Forms of Intellectual Disability: A Systematic Review and Meta‐Analysis. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 2025. DOI: 10.1111/jir.13244. PMID: 40274277.
• Fu 2024. Objective assessment of the association between telomere length, a biomarker of aging, and health screening indicators: A cross-sectional study. Medicine, 2024. DOI: 10.1097/MD.0000000000038533. PMID: 38875394.
• Ryall 2025. A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis Highlights a Link Between Aerobic Fitness and Telomere Maintenance. The Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 2025. DOI: 10.1093/gerona/glaf068. PMID: 40247641.
• Xia 2024. Associations between weight-adjusted-waist index and telomere length: Results from NHANES: An observational study. Medicine, 2024. DOI: 10.1097/MD.0000000000037905. PMID: 38669426.
• Al-Hawary 2024. The association of metabolic syndrome with telomere length as a marker of cellular aging: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Genetics, 2024. DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2024.1390198. PMID: 39045323.
• Tunnicliffe 2025. Infection and telomere length: A systematic review. PLOS One, 2025. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0333107. PMID: 40986533.
• Andreikos 2024. The Association between Telomere Length and Head and Neck Cancer Risk: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 2024. DOI: 10.3390/ijms25169000. PMID: 39201686.
• Ronne-Petersen 2024. Exploring emotional well-being, spiritual, religious and personal beliefs and telomere length in chronic pain patients—A pilot study with cross-sectional design. PLOS ONE, 2024. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0308924. PMID: 39231146.
• Guo 2025. Effect of infections, DNA methylation and telomere length on frailty trajectories in hospitalized older patients: the INFRAGEN study protocol. BMC Geriatrics, 2025. DOI: 10.1186/s12877-025-06194-z. PMID: 40702442.
• Behar-Lagares 2026. Gender-based differences in telomere attrition and long-term respiratory dysfunction in COVID-19 ICU survivors one year post-infection: implications for aging-associated pulmonary decline. Frontiers in Immunology, 2026. DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2025.1681454. PMID: 41567226.
• Shen 2026. The association of serum levels of vitamin D with leucocyte telomere length, as a marker of biological aging: A meta-analysis. Medicine, 2026. DOI: 10.1097/MD.0000000000044487. PMID: 41650046.
• Vlasova 2026. Parental Age Effects on Offspring Telomere Length Across Vertebrates: A Meta‐Analysis. Molecular Ecology, 2026. DOI: 10.1111/mec.70215. PMID: 41556533.
• Gerede 2026. A Systematic Review of Telomere Length and Telomerase Activity in Preeclampsia: Maternal, Placental, and Cord Blood Perspectives. Medical Sciences, 2026. DOI: 10.3390/medsci14010100. PMID: 41892815.
• Sanchez-Gonzalez 2025. Effect of Physical Exercise on Telomere Length: Umbrella Review and Meta-Analysis. JMIR Aging, 2025. DOI: 10.2196/64539. PMID: 39846264.

Background References

Canonical clinical thresholds cited in prose. Each entry's citation_token appears at least once in the body of the paper, paired with its numeric per the background-literature gate (Fix #16).

• Ioannidis 2005. Ioannidis JPA. Why most published research findings are false. PLoS Med. 2005;2(8):e124. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pmed.0020124. PMID: 16060722.